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The LANES lab's 2D device made of graphene and indium selenide ( Alain Herzog)

LAUSANNE, Switzerland Scientists have created a miniature 2D device that can convert heat into electricity with record-breaking efficiency at temperatures lower than in outer space! This breakthrough could revolutionize how we power sensitive quantum computers and explore exotic physics in extremely cold environments.

In the journalNature Nanotechnology, a team of researchers from Switzerland and Japan revealed their electrically-tunable Nernst effect device made from atomically-thin layers of different materials stacked together. Their tiny chip, measuring just micrometers across, can generate useful electrical signals from small temperature differences even at a frigid 100 millikelvin just a fraction of a degree above absolute zero.

The device takes advantage of the Nernst effect, where a voltage is generated perpendicular to both a temperature gradient and magnetic field in certain materials. While this effect has been known for over a century, making it work well in extreme cold has been an ongoing challenge until now.

We are the first to create a device that matches the conversion efficiency of current technologies, but that operates at the low magnetic fields and ultra-low temperatures required for quantum systems. This work is truly a step ahead, says Gabriele Pasquale, a PhD student at EPFLs Laboratory of Nanoscale Electronics and Structures (LANES), in a media release.

The key to the teams success was carefully combining different two-dimensional materials into a van der Waals heterostructure essentially a stack of ultra-thin layers held together by weak atomic forces.

They started with a base layer of graphene a single-atom-thick sheet of carbon with excellent electrical properties. On top of this, they placed a few layers of indium selenide (InSe), a semiconductor with intriguing thermoelectric characteristics. The whole stack was then encapsulated in insulating layers of hexagonal boron nitride for protection.

The researchers fabricated their devices using advanced clean-room techniques to ensure the highest quality and purity of materials. They then cooled the chips down to just above absolute zero in a special refrigerator called a dilution fridge.

To test the devices, the team used a focused laser to create localized heating and sophisticated electronic measurements to detect the resulting signals. They also applied magnetic fields and varied the electrical charge in the device using additional electrodes.

The team observed a Nernst effect signal that could be switched on and off electrically with an unprecedented ratio of 1,000 to 1. This means the device can be precisely controlled using standard electronic components.

Even more impressively, they measured a Nernst coefficient a measure of the strength of the effect of 66.4 microvolts per kelvin per tesla. This is the highest value ever reported at such low temperatures and modest magnetic fields.

The researchers also found that their heterostructure design amplified the Nernst effect compared to using graphene or indium selenide alone. This synergistic enhancement points to new ways of engineering improved thermoelectric materials.

If you think of a laptop in a cold office, the laptop will still heat up as it operates, causing the temperature of the room to increase as well. In quantum computing systems, there is currently no mechanism to prevent this heat from disturbing the qubits. Our device could provide this necessary cooling, Pasquale explains.

This breakthrough has significant implications for both fundamental physics and practical applications. On the basic science side, it provides a new tool for probing exotic quantum states of matter that only emerge at ultra-low temperatures.

On the applied side, the technology could find use in quantum computing, where precise control of heat flow is critical. It might enable new types of quantum sensors or help manage waste heat in superconducting circuits.

The team is now working to further optimize their devices and explore different material combinations. Theyre also investigating how to scale up production for practical applications.

These findings represent a major advancement in nanotechnology and hold promise for developing advanced cooling technologies essential for quantum computing at millikelvin temperatures, Pasquale concludes. We believe this achievement could revolutionize cooling systems for future technologies.

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Scientists invent tiny device that creates ice-cold electricity for quantum computers - Study Finds

Why did Wasiq Bokhari, Chairperson at Pasqal, join the pioneering neutral atom quantum computing company?

In his own words in a recent interview: Three principal reasons: first, I am just very interested in the whole quantum computing space. It is an amazing threshold of capability that we are about to cross, and I just want to be part of this.

Bokharis enthusiasm for quantum computings transformative potential is palpable, but he also cites the caliber of Pasqals team as a driving factor.

Second, its the team, its the peoplebrilliant, motivated, really good people, he said. One of the things Ive learned is always work with exceptional people, so I want to be part of the team.

However, it is Pasqals unique approach that sets it apart in Bokharis eyes.

The third is the approach, and on the approach, there are two things I would like to point out, Bokhari went on. First is the neutral atom approach itself; it is very scalable and has a lot of built-in advantages that other approaches do not have. But the second is the overall engineering approach that the team has taken from the very beginning.

This engineering mindset is a cornerstone of Pasqals ethos, as Bokhari elaborated: It has never been about only demonstrating something in a lab but how can we build systems that can be deployed in the real world and can solve real-world problems today versus waiting for a long period of time? How can we engage with customers?

Bokhari sees quantum computing as a transformative force.

The advent of scalable quantum computing is a fundamentally disruptive and redefining moment for us, he said, before adding that Quantum computing, enabled by us, will become a pillar of all computation along with traditional high-performance computing and all sorts of generative or non-generative AI methods. It becomes a third pillar.

At the heart of Pasqals approach is a relentless pursuit of solving complex problems.

We are super mindful about solving the hard fundamental problems that give an edge to quantum computing; we dont shy away from the hard problems, we run towards them because thats the fundamental edge that you get through the use of quantum computing, said Bokhari.

Pasqals commitment to real-world impact is unwavering, as Bokhari affirmed: The second thing thats important to us is to build systems that are not one-offs but are scalable. This requires very good, in fact, excellent engineering discipline and thinking about scalability, thinking about repeatability, thinking about yields from the very upfront in terms of the design, from every component all the way up to the systems.

Engaging with customers and solving their critical challenges is paramount to Pasqals mission.

We should not shy away from engaging with customers and engaging with their real business-critical problems because only by getting in direct contact with what matters and what delivers value can we focus our energies on delivering something that is valuable, said Bokhari.

Under Bokharis leadership, Pasqal is forging a collaborative path with its customers: Today, we view this journey as a journey together with our customers. Its a collaborative journey. We would like our customers to challenge us with hard problems, with problems that matter to them.

With its groundbreaking neutral atom technology, exceptional team, and unwavering customer-centric approach, Pasqal is poised to shape the future of quantum computing under Bokharis visionary guidance.

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Wasiq Bokhari Joins Pasqal to Revolutionize Quantum Computing with Neutral Atom Technology & Unmatched Team Collaboration - The Quantum Insider

Just made public by his company, Sebastian Weidt, CEO of Universal Quantum, provided valuable insights into the future of quantum computing at the Web Summit in Lisbon in November 2023. While acknowledging the current hype surrounding the technology, Weidt underlined the long-term potential and challenges facing the industry.

Weidt explained quantum computing as a new form of doing computations that utilizes strange quantum effects to solve problems exponentially faster than traditional supercomputers. However, he cautioned that significant scaling is required before quantum computers can deliver on their promise.

We really need to scale these machines from where we are at the moment tens of qubits hundreds of qubits to millions of qubits, said Weidt. Thats a scary target that were aiming for here, but this is what ultimately must happen to unlock these applications.

Quantum error correction is, indeed, one of the fundamental problems with quantum computing. Weidt added that inherently, quantum systems were fragile and prone to errors. This is countered by developing error correction algorithms, which also need many physical qubits to create logical qubits of stability.

Regarding potential applications, Weidt expressed excitement about drug discovery: I think theres a lot of excitement for me personally as well around drug discovery. I think using these quantum computers to understand chemical reactions better, molecular structures better, which is at the heart of developing new drugs and currently is really hard using our currently available computing technology.

When asked about the timeline for practical quantum computers, Weidt was cautiously optimistic.

It would be nice to get some utility to something where you really feel a change because of quantum computing maybe a new drug was developed because of that, maybe we understand climate change better, maybe a new material, he answered. Theres a huge push to do that this decade, but I think this can definitely leak into the next decade as well.

Weidt also addressed concerns about quantum computers breaking current encryption systems. He urged businesses to prepare now: Please, please, please look at your encryption algorithms and check if they are quantum secure. Please make those changes now.

Looking to the future, Weidt sees a hybrid computing architecture where quantum and classical computers work together seamlessly. He punctuated that quantum computers wont replace classical systems but will complement them for specific problem-solving tasks.

As the quantum computing field continues to evolve, Weidts insights provide a balanced perspective on both the challenges and immense potential of this groundbreaking technology.

Featured image: Credit: Web Summit

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Universal Quantum CEO Sebastian Weidt Discusses the Future & Challenges of Quantum Computing - The Quantum Insider

The rapid evolution of quantum computing poses a significant threat to current cybersecurity practices, particularly for critical infrastructures (CI) such as power grids, transportation systems, and healthcare facilities. These systems rely heavily on secure communications and data integrity to ensure operational stability and public safety. The potential for quantum computers to break widely used cryptographic algorithms like RSA and ECC necessitates a proactive transition to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) [15]. This article examines the importance of cybersecurity in CI, the emergence of quantum computing as a threat, and the potential of PQC in safeguarding these vital systems against future attacks.

The 21st century has witnessed an unprecedented surge in interconnectedness, with communication technologies permeating nearly every aspect of modern society [6]. This hyperconnected paradigm extends beyond personal interactions to encompass the control of industrial machines, financial transactions, and the management of critical infrastructure [6].

Critical infrastructure, encompassing sectors like energy, transportation, and communication, forms the backbone of modern society. Cyber vulnerabilities in these systems can have catastrophic consequences, potentially disrupting essential services, causing economic damage, and even leading to loss of life [5, 7]. For instance, a cyberattack on a power grid could lead to widespread blackouts, crippling healthcare facilities, transportation systems, and emergency services [4, 7]. The interconnected nature of CI amplifies these risks, as a single point of failure can trigger a cascading effect, propagating disruptions across multiple sectors [7, 8].

Given the high stakes involved, cybersecurity has become paramount in protecting CI from increasingly sophisticated cyberattacks. In 2022 alone, there were an estimated 2,200 cyberattacks per day, highlighting the constant threat faced by businesses and infrastructure [7]. This threat is further exacerbated by growing geopolitical tensions, as state-sponsored actors increasingly leverage cyberattacks to disrupt critical infrastructure and sow discord [7].

Traditional cryptography, the foundation of secure communications, relies on mathematical problems that are computationally infeasible for classical computers to solve within a practical timeframe [9, 10]. Public-key cryptosystems, like RSA and ECC, underpin secure key exchange mechanisms and digital signatures, ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity in digital communications [8, 9, 11].

Quantum computers, leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics, possess the potential to dramatically outperform classical computers in solving specific types of problems [1216]. Shors algorithm, a quantum algorithm, can efficiently factor large numbers and compute discrete logarithms, tasks that form the basis of RSA and ECC security [3, 10, 12]. This capability undermines the security assumptions of these widely deployed public-key cryptosystems, rendering them vulnerable to attacks once sufficiently powerful quantum computers become a reality [3, 17].

While estimates vary, experts suggest that a fault-tolerant quantum computer capable of executing Shors algorithm could be operational within the next two decades [17, 18]. This looming threat, often referred to as the quantum apocalypse, has prompted a global effort to develop and deploy quantum-resistant cryptographic solutions [2, 3, 5].

The harvest now, decrypt later paradigm underscores the urgency of this transition [17]. Malicious actors could exploit the longevity of encrypted data by capturing sensitive information today and decrypting it later, once they have access to quantum computers. This necessitates a proactive approach to ensure the long-term confidentiality of sensitive information, particularly in sectors like finance, government, and critical infrastructure, where data often retains its value for extended periods [17, 18].

Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) encompasses classical cryptographic techniques that are believed to be resistant to attacks from both classical and quantum computers [5, 19]. PQC algorithms are based on mathematical problems that are not known to be efficiently solvable by quantum algorithms, offering a potential solution to the threat posed by quantum computers [19, 20].

There are seven major families of PQC algorithms, each relying on a different hard mathematical problem:

Integrating PQC into operational technology (OT) environments presents unique challenges compared to traditional IT systems. OT systems, responsible for controlling and monitoring physical processes in CI, often have long lifespans, limited computational resources, and stringent real-time requirements [17, 34, 35]. These constraints necessitate careful consideration when selecting and deploying PQC algorithms.

The extended lifespan of OT equipment, often exceeding 20 years, poses a significant challenge for PQC migration [17, 34]. As quantum computing technology advances, PQC algorithms deemed secure today might become vulnerable in the future. This necessitates flexible and adaptable solutions that allow for future upgrades and algorithm agility [36, 37]. Hybrid cryptography, combining classical and PQC algorithms during the migration period, offers a viable approach to address this challenge, ensuring continued security even if one of the algorithms is compromised [36].

Furthermore, the computational limitations and real-time constraints of OT systems require PQC algorithms with low latency and minimal overhead [2, 29, 35]. Lattice-based cryptography, with its relatively small key sizes and efficient implementations, has emerged as a frontrunner for OT deployments [29, 35]. However, ongoing research and development are crucial to optimize these algorithms further and address potential vulnerabilities, such as side-channel attacks [35, 38].

Side-channel attacks exploit information leakage from physical implementations of cryptographic systems, such as power consumption, electromagnetic emissions, or timing variations [39]. While these attacks can threaten both classical and PQC implementations, they are particularly relevant in OT environments, where attackers might have physical access to devices [38, 39]. Robust countermeasures, including hardware and software defenses, are essential to mitigate the risk of side-channel attacks on PQC implementations in CI [38].

The advent of quantum computing presents a significant challenge to the long-term security of critical infrastructure. The potential for quantum computers to break widely used cryptographic algorithms necessitates a proactive and strategic approach to cybersecurity in CI.

Post-quantum cryptography offers a promising path to securing these vital systems against quantum threats. However, the unique constraints of OT environments require careful consideration when selecting and deploying PQC algorithms. Lattice-based cryptography, with its favorable performance characteristics and active research community, appears well-suited for CI applications. However, ongoing research and development are crucial to address potential vulnerabilities and ensure long-term security in the face of evolving quantum threats.

The transition to PQC in CI is not merely a technical challenge but a multifaceted endeavor requiring collaboration between governments, industry stakeholders, and the research community. Standardizing PQC algorithms, developing secure and efficient implementations, and addressing potential vulnerabilities like side-channel attacks are all crucial steps toward achieving quantum-resistant security for CI.

The time to act is now. By investing in PQC research, development, and deployment, we can ensure the resilience of critical infrastructure and safeguard the essential services that underpin modern society in the post-quantum era.

More:
The Urgent Need for Post-Quantum Cryptography in Critical Infrastructure | by Cyber Safe Institute | Jul, 2024 - Medium