Category Archives: Quantum Physics
The quantum physics behind fireworks displays – Big Think
This Thursday, July 4, 2024, is remarkable for a number of reasons. It happens to bejust one day before aphelion: the day where the Earth is at its most distant from the Sun as it revolves through the Solar System in its elliptical orbit. Its the 248th anniversary of when the United States officially declared independence from, and war on, the nation of Great Britain. And it marks the annual date when the wealthiest nation in the world sets off more explosivesin the form of fireworksthan any other.
Whether youre an amateur hobbyist, a professional installer, or simply a spectator, fireworks showsare driven by the same laws of physicsthat govern all of nature. Individual fireworks all contain the same four component stages: launch, fuse, burst charges, and stars. Without quantum physics, not a single one of them would be possible. Heres the science behind how every component of these spectacular shows works.
The anatomy of a firework consists of a large variety of elements and stages. However, the same four basic elements are the same across all types and styles of fireworks: the lift charge, the main fuse, a burst charge, and stars. Variations in the diameter of the launch tube, the length of the time-delay fuse, and the height of the fireworks are all necessary to ignite the stars with the proper conditions during the break.
The start of any firework is the launch aspect: the initial explosion that causes the lift. Ever sincefireworks were first inventedmore than a millennium ago, the same three simple ingredients have been at the heart of them: sulfur, charcoal, and a source of potassium nitrate. Sulfur is a yellow solid that occurs naturally in volcanically active locations, while potassium nitrate is abundant in natural sources like bird droppings or bat guano.
Charcoal, on the other hand, isnt the briquettes we commonly use for grilling, but the carbon residue left over from charring (or pyrolyzing) organic matter, such as wood. Once all the water has been removed from the charcoal, all three ingredients can be mixed together with a mortar and pestle. The fine, black powder that emerges is gunpowder, already oxygen-rich from the potassium nitrate.
The three main ingredients in black powder (gunpowder) are charcoal (activated carbon, at left), sulfur (bottom right) and potassium nitrate (top right). The nitrate portion of the potassium nitrate contains its own oxygen, which means that fireworks can be successfully launched and ignited even in the absence of external oxygen; they would work just as well on the Moon as they do on Earth.
With all those ingredients mixed together, theres a lot of stored energy in the molecular bonds holding the different components together. But theres a more stable configuration that these atoms and molecules could be rearranged into. The raw ingredientspotassium nitrate, carbon, and sulfurwill combust (in the presence of high-enough temperatures) to form solids such as potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, and potassium sulfide, along gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide.
All it takes to reach these high temperatures is a small heat source, like a match. The reaction is a quick-burning deflagration, rather than an explosion, which is incredibly useful in a propulsion device. The rearrangement of these atoms (and the fact that the fuel contains its own oxygen) allows the nuclei and electrons to rearrange their configuration, releasing energy and sustaining the reaction. Without the quantum physics of these rearranged bonds, there would be no way to release this stored energy.
The Macys Fourth of July fireworks celebration that takes place annually in New York City displays some of the largest and highest fireworks you can find in the United States of America and the world. This iconic celebration, along with all the associated lights and colors, is only possible because of the inescapable rules of quantum mechanics.
When that first energy release occurs, conventionally known as the lift charge, it has two important effects.
The upward acceleration needs to give your firework the right upward velocity to get it to a safe height for explosion, and the fuse needs to be timed appropriately to detonate at the peak launch height. A small fireworks show might have shells as small as 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter, which require a height of 200 feet (60 m), while the largest shows (like the one by the Statue of Liberty in New York) have shells as large as 3 feet (90 cm) in diameter, requiring altitudes exceeding 1000 feet (300 m).
Different diameter shells can produce different sized bursts, which require being launched to progressively higher altitudes for safety and visibility reasons. In general, larger fireworks must be launched to higher altitudes, and therefore require larger lift charges and longer fuse times to get there. The largest fireworks shells exceed even the most grandiose of the illustrations in this diagram.
The fuse, on the other hand, is the second stage and will be lit by the ignition stage of the launch.Most fusesrely on a similar black powder reaction to the one used in a lift charge, except the burning black powder core is surrounded by wrapped textile coated with either wax or lacquer. The inner core functions via the same quantum rearrangement of atoms and electron bonds as any black powder reaction, but the remaining fuse components serve a different purpose: to delay ignition.
The textile material is typically made of multiple woven and coated strings. The coatings make the device water resistant, so they can work regardless of weather. The woven strings control the rate of burning, dependent on what theyre made out of, the number and diameter of each woven string, and the diameter of the powder core. Slow-burning fuses might take 30 seconds to burn a single foot, while fast-burning fuses can burn hundreds of feet in a single second.
The three main configurations of fireworks, with lift charges, fuses, burst charges, and stars all visible. In all cases, a lift charge launches the firework upward from within a tube, igniting the fuse, which then burns until it ignites the burst charge, which heats and distributes the stars over a large volume of space.
The third stage, then, is the burst charge stage, which controls the size and spatial distribution of the stars inside. In general the higher you launch your fireworks and the larger-diameter your shells are, the larger your burst charge will need to be to propel the insides of the shell outward. In general, the interior of the firework will have a fuse connected to the burst charge, which is surrounded by the color-producing stars.
Theburst chargecan be as simple as another collection of black powder, such as gunpowder. But it could be far more complex, such as the much louder and more impressiveflash powder, or a multi-stage explosive that sends stars in multiple directions. By utilizing different chemical compounds that offer different quantum rearrangements of their bonds, you can tune your energy release, the size of the burst, and the distribution and ignition times of the stars.
Differently shaped patterns and flight paths are highly dependent on the configuration and compositions of the stars inside the fireworks themselves. This final stage is what produces the light and color of fireworks, and is where the most important quantum physics comes into play.
But the most interesting part is that final stage: where the stars ignite. The burst is what takes the interior temperatures to sufficient levelsto create the light and colorthat we associate with these spectacular shows. The coarse explanation is that you can take different chemical compounds, place them inside the stars, and when they reach a sufficient temperature, they emit light of different colors.
This explanation, though, glosses over the most important component: the mechanism of how these colors are emitted. When you apply enough energy to an atom, or molecule, you can excite or even ionize the electrons that conventionally keep it electrically neutral. When those excited electrons then naturally cascade downward in the atom, molecule, or ion, they emit photons, producing emission lines of a characteristic frequency. If they fall in the visible portion of the spectrum, the human eye is even capable of seeing them.
The traditional model of an atom, now more than 100 years old, is of a positively charged nucleus orbited by negatively charged electrons. Although the outdated Bohr model is where this picture comes from, we can arrive at a more accurate description simply by considering the electrons quantum uncertainty.
What determines which emission lines an element or compound possesses? Its simply the quantum mechanics of the spacing between the different energy levels inherent to the substance itself. For example, heated sodium emits a characteristic yellow glow, as it has two very narrow emission lines at 588 and 589 nanometers. Youre likely familiar with these if you live in a city, as most of those yellow-colored street lamps you see are powered by elemental sodium.
As applied to fireworks, there are a great variety of elements and compounds that can be utilized to emit a wide variety of colors. Different compounds of Barium, Sodium, Copper, and Strontium can produce colors covering a huge range of the visible spectrum, and the different compounds inserted in the fireworks stars are responsible for everything we see. In fact,the full spectrum of colors can be achievedwith just a handful of conventional compounds.
The interior of this curve shows the relationship between color, wavelength, and temperature in chromaticity space. Along the edges, where the colors are most saturated, a variety of elements, ions, and compounds can be shown, with their various emission lines marked out. Note that many elements/compounds have multiple emission lines associated with them, and all of these are used in various fireworks. Because of how easy it is to create barium oxide in a combustion reaction, certain firework colors, such as forest green and ocean green, remain elusive.
Whats perhaps the most impressive about all of this is that the color we see with the human eye is not necessarily the same as the color emitted by the fireworks themselves. For example, if you were to analyze the light emitted by a violet laser, youd find that the photons emerging from it were of a specific wavelength that corresponded to the violet part of the spectrum.
The quantum transitions that power a laser always result in photons of exactly the same wavelength, and our eyes see them precisely as they are, with the multiple types of cones we possess responding to that signal in such a way that our brain responds to construct a signal thats commensurate with the light possessing a violet color.
A set of Q-line laser pointers showcase the diverse colors and compact size that now are commonplace for lasers. By pumping electrons into an excited state and stimulating them with a photon of the desired wavelength, you can cause the emission of another photon of exactly the same energy and wavelength. This action is how the light for a laser is first created: by the stimulated emission of radiation.
But if you look at that same color that appears as violet not from a monochromatic source like a laser, but from your phone or computer screen, youll find that there are no intrinsically violet photons striking your eyes at all! Instead,as Chad Orzel has noted in the past,
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Our eyes construct what we perceive as color from the response of three types of cells in our retina, each sensitive to light of a particular range of colors. One is most sensitive to blue-ish light (short wavelength), one is most sensitive to red light (long wavelength), and the third to a sort of yellow-green. Based on how strongly each of these cells responds to incoming light, our brains construct our perception ofcolor.
In other words, the key to producing the fireworks display you want isnt necessarily to create light of a specific color that corresponds to a specific wavelength, but rather to create light that excites the right molecules in our body to cause our brain to perceive a particular color.
A violet laser emits photons of a very particular, narrow wavelength, as every photon carries the same amount of energy. This curve, shown in blue, emits violet photons only. The green curve shows how a computer screen approximates the same exact violet color by using a mix of different wavelengths of light. Both appear to be the same color to human eyes, but only one truly produces photons of the same color that our eyes perceive.
Fireworks might appear to be relatively simple explosive devices. Pack a charge into the bottom of a tube to lift the fireworks to the desired height, ignite a fuse of the proper length to reach the burst charge at the peak of its trajectory, explode the burst charge to distribute the stars at a high temperature, and then watch and listen to the show as the sound, light, and color washes over you.
Yet if we look a little deeper, we can understand how quantum physics underlies every single one of these reactions. Add a little bit extrasuch as propulsion or fuel inside each starand your colored lights can spin, rise, or thrust in a random direction. Make sure you enjoy your fourth of July safely, but also armed with the knowledge that empowers you to understand how the most spectacular human-made light show of the year truly works!
A version of this article first appeared in 2022. Happy 4th of July, everyone!
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UNBC assistant professor makes groundbreaking discovery in the field of quantum physics – CKPGToday.ca
While magnons are known to occur naturally they do not want to appear next to each other and will repel as soon as possible, dissipating that energy. However when the researchers shone terahertz light waves to excite the spins in a material with the chemical composition of BaCo2V2O8 they created magnon pairs that were bound together with nowhere for that energy to dissipate.
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They remain next to each other for at least 18 picoseconds. So its a very short time. but its enough for the detection to occur, continues Bernier. And it was surprising that it exists because in a solid theres supposed to be a lot of channels for dissipation. So, it should have been really easy to for this state to dissipate. But it turns out that we can observe it which was the big breakthrough.
While uses for this breakthrough are theoretical it could have the potential to drastically increase privacy when telecommunicating.
Theres this race going on right now about trying to find ways to communicate using quantum effects, says Bernier. It is possible that these bound state could be used to alter transport in spin chains, which is one of the possible devices that could that could be used for quantum telecommunication.
For now, physicist will be on the hunt for more materials that contain these exotically bound objects.
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New open-source software is greater than the sum of its parts – University of Waterloo
Accurate models of real-world scenarios are important for bringing theoretical and experimental research together in meaningful ways. Creating these realistic computer models, however, is a very large undertaking. Significant amounts of data, code, and expertise across a wide range of intricate areas are needed to create useful and comprehensive software.
Dr. Norbert Ltkenhaus, executive director of the Institute for Quantum Computing (IQC) and a professor in the University of Waterloos Department of Physics and Astronomy, alongside his research group, have spent the last several years developing accurate software models for research in quantum key distribution (QKD). QKD is a process for cryptography that harnesses fundamental principles of quantum mechanics to exchange secret keys, which can then be used to ensure secure communication.
Ltkenhaus and his research group recently released a modular, open-source software package on GitHub, which allows users to model realistic QKD protocols and calculate the generation rate for secure quantum keys using user-submitted variables for real-world scenarios.
Modelling and analyzing QKD setups require many different skills to come together. Our software framework allows experts in various areas like optimization theory, optical modelling and security analysis to bring their knowledge together, Ltkenhaus says. The open-source approach is designed to foster an interdisciplinary community from which all researchers will benefit.
Read more about this open-source QKD software package in the full story on Waterloo News.
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New open-source software is greater than the sum of its parts - University of Waterloo
Quantum sensing: quantum technology you’ve never heard of – Cosmos
Quantum physics has become ubiquitous across science over the past few years, often in connection to advances and investment in quantum computing research.
However, its quantum sensing where much of the investment in quantum technologies is directed and its a growing area of research.
It is true that quantum computers will one day offer us increased computing power and efficiency, however the goal of creating a fully-fledged quantum computer is many years away.
This is due to the engineering challenges involved; it is extremely difficult to maintain a qubit (the building block of a quantum computer) in a quantum state long enough to use it. Any outside perturbations cause the system to collapse, rendering it useless. Even the tiniest fluctuations in properties like magnetic and electric fields or temperature can cause the collapse of a quantum state.
This sensitivity presents an obvious challenge to the development of a quantum computer; however, researchers can harness this sensitivity, and access interactions and phenomena at levels well outside the range of conventional sensing approaches.
Todays quantum sensors have their roots in well-established techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is founded on similar quantum mechanical principles. In an MRI experiment, individual nuclei are used as qubits, which report on their surrounding environment. Similarly, most modern quantum sensing uses either a nuclear or electronic spin as a qubit.
As the name suggests, MRIs measure how the magnetic field environment around hydrogen nuclei affects their behaviour. In many cases, modern quantum sensors are also used as highly sensitive magnetic field detectors. Unlike MRI however, they often combine magnetic field sensitivity with extremely high spatial resolution and the prospect of low cost and portability. Together, these attributes make them useful across a diverse collection of industries and research areas.
For example, one promising application of quantum sensing is the identification of novel materials for use in classical computers.
To maintain the utility of classical computers into the future, considerations around power consumption and size constraints will need to be addressed. Electrical engineers are interested in new materials, such as graphene and perovskite, which will offer benefits over traditional silicon-based devices.
Quantum sensing is helping to understand the magnetic behaviour of these novel materials; a vital requirement for selecting those worth further development.
As molecular biology has advanced, questions about the nature of intracellular interactions, such as those within or between individual proteins, have become the target of fundamental research. Quantum sensors can offer unique information at a higher resolution than compared to traditional techniques like light microscopy.
Researchers are hopeful that with this new level of detail, quantum sensing can be used to answer questions useful to medical science, such as how to design better drugs, the nature of neuronal signalling and how to more accurately diagnose disease. These goals are being addressed by the new 7-year, ARC Centre of Excellence on Quantum Biotechnology.
Quantum sensing has also seen strong uptake within the mineral resources sector where it can be used to identify new mineral extraction sites via the subtle magnetic fields they produce. SQUID magnetometers (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices use quantised superconducting states as the sensor) are already deployed for this task and can detect magnetic fields many times smaller than the earths.
Finally, given their unique sensitivity, physicists are also interested in the new physical regimes quantum sensors could access. Quantum sensors may end up helping scientists answer some of physics most fundamental questions, such as the nature of dark matter or gravity. SQUIDs have recently been deployed at the Simons Observatory in Chile to help detect cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. In this case, instead of a magnetic signal, what is detected is the heat created when a CMB photon collides with a SQUID, disrupting its quantum state.
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Quantum sensing: quantum technology you've never heard of - Cosmos
Tiny Quantum Ghosts Might Be Creating Brand-New Elements – Popular Mechanics
In the beginning, there was lots and lots of hydrogen and heliumthat is until the fiery fusion furnaces of primordial stars began churning out heavier elements. Nuclear fusion can form elements all the way until an atom contains 26 protons and 30 neutrons (aka Iron) until it inevitably collapses. Of course, theres just one problem. If youve happened to glance at a periodic table lately, theres many more elements with atomic masses far beyond iron. So what gives?
Turns out theres another element-producing process at work, and its called neutron capture, or nucleosynthesis. This process breaks down into two different types, which are called rapid neutron-capture process (r-process) and slow neutron-capture process (s-process), and each are roughly responsible for creating half of the known elements beyond iron. As their names suggest, these processes occur in very different environments. R-process requires a high density of free neutrons (think neutron star mergers or supernova collapses) while s-process occurs in asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars and
But as with most things in astrophysics, things are not quite so black and white. Back in 1977, scientists proposed a third process, known as the intermediate-process (i-process), that exists sort of in between both r- and s-processes. The idea faded with time but has regained attention in recent years due to the enigma known as carbon-enhanced metal-poor (CEMP) r/s stars, which produce abundances of carbon and heavy elements associated with both processes. Now, a new study from the University of WisconsinMadison investigates how exactly such an i-process would work, and the solution to this very big mystery veers into the very small quantum world.
When a supernova collapse occurs, you start with a big star, which is gravitationally bound, and that binding has energy, UW-Madisons Baha Balantekin, a co-author of a paper on the i-process published in The Astrophysical Journal, said in a press statement. While the i-process is a nucleosynthesis middle child, one aspect is shares with r-process is that it only occurs in similarly violent conditions. When it collapses, that energy has to be released, and it turns out that energy is released in neutrinos.
Its when those neutrinos experience quantum entanglement due to interactions in a supernova, that the i-process can take over and produce heavy elements. This entanglement means the two neutrinos remember each other no matter how far apart they may be. Using well-known rates of neutron capture, catalogs of atomic spectra of various stars, and data surrounding neutrino production via supernova, the team ran simplified simulations (supernovae produce 10^58 neutrinos after all) and arrive at differing abundances depending on whether these neutrinos were entangled or not.
We have a system of, say, three neutrinos and three antineutrinos together in a region where there are protons and neutrons and see if that changes anything about element formation, Balantekin says. We calculate the abundances of elements that are produced in the star, and you see that the entangled or not entangled cases give you different abundances.
There are a few things about this hypothesis that still need to be testedchief among them is that neutrino-neutrino interactions are largely hypothetical at this point. However, this new process could help further explain how something came from nothing.
Darren lives in Portland, has a cat, and writes/edits about sci-fi and how our world works. You can find his previous stuff at Gizmodo and Paste if you look hard enough.
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Tiny Quantum Ghosts Might Be Creating Brand-New Elements - Popular Mechanics
Manipulating the quantum dance of spinning electrons – Earth.com
In the world of spinning electrons and quantum states, an exciting realm thats reshaping our everyday lives through our gadgets, researchers have made a discovery that promises even more powerful storage and processing capacities.
Just like a compass needle aligns itself to a magnetic field, electrons possess an inherent angular momentum, termed as spin.
Beyond their electric charge, which dictates behavior in electronic circuits, their spin has become pivotal for storing and processing data.
Our current gadgets, such as MRAM memory elements (magnetic random access memories), information is stored via small classical magnets.
These comprise a myriad of electron spins. The MRAMs, in turn, operate on spin-aligned electron currents, which can shift magnetization at a certain point in a material.
Researcher Pietro Gambardella, and his team at ETH Zurich, discovered that spin-polarized currents can also govern the quantum states of single electron spins.
Their findings, freshly published in the scientific journal Science, promise great potential for controlling quantum states of quantum bits (qubits).
Electron spins have been traditionally manipulated utilizing electromagnetic fields like radio-frequency waves or microwaves, explains Sebastian Stepanow, a Senior Scientist in Gambardellas laboratory.
This established technique, known as electron paramagnetic resonance, traces back to the mid-1940s and has found use in assorted fields such as material research, chemistry, and biophysics.
However, the exact mechanism of inducing electron paramagnetic resonance in singular atoms has remained hazy.
To delve deeper into the quantum mechanical processes behind this mechanism, the researchers readied pentacene molecules (an aromatic hydrocarbon) onto a silver substrate.
A thin insulating layer of magnesium oxide, previously deposited on the substrate, ensures that the electrons in the molecule behave more or less as they would in free space.
The researchers used a scanning tunnelling microscope to measure the current created when the electrons tunnelled quantum mechanically from the tip of a tungsten needle to the molecule.
Classical physics would argue against this process, but quantum mechanics empowers the electrons to tunnel through the gap, generating a measurable current.
By applying a constant voltage and a rapidly oscillating voltage to a magnetized tungsten tip, and subsequently measuring the resulting tunnel current, the team was able to observe characteristic resonances in the tunnel current.
The shape of these resonances allowed them to infer the processes between the tunnelling electrons and those of the molecule.
Through their data analysis, Stepanow and his team reaped two critical insights.
Firstly, the electron spins in the pentacene molecule reacted to the electromagnetic field created by the alternating voltage, similar to ordinary electron paramagnetic resonance.
Secondly, they found an additional process at play that also influenced the spins of the electrons in the molecule.
This process is the so-called spin transfer torque, says PhD student Stepan Kovarik. Under the influence of a spin-polarized current, the spin of the molecule is altered without any direct action of an electromagnetic field.
The ETH researchers demonstrated that its possible to create quantum mechanical superposition states of the molecular electron spin, and these states are being used in quantum technologies.
Spin control by spin-polarized currents at the quantum level gives way to numerous potential applications, Kovarik predicts.
Contrary to electromagnetic fields, spin-polarized currents can act locally and be steered with a precision of less than a nanometer.
They could be deployed to address electronic circuit elements in quantum devices with extreme precision, thereby controlling the quantum states of magnetic qubits.
Time will tell how this exciting development will translate into practical applications in storing and processing data. But until then, thanks to the relentless curiosity of scientists like Gambardella, Stepanow, and Kovarik, our understanding of the quantum dance of electrons continues to evolve.
The full study was published in the journal Science.
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The Future of Quantum Computing with Neutral-Atom Arrays – The Quantum Insider
At the recent MCQST Colloquium held at the Max Planck Institute for Quantum Optics, Johannes Zeiher provided a compelling overview of the advances in quantum simulation and quantum computing with neutral-atom arrays. His presentation offered valuable insights into how these systems are poised to transform quantum technology.
Zeiher started by explaining the core motivation behind their work.
Our goal is to understand, control and create many-body systems using individually controllable neutral atoms, he stated. These neutral atoms, arranged using optical tweezers, serve as a powerful platform for studying quantum phenomena due to their high level of controllability and scalability.
One of the key advantages of neutral-atom arrays is their ability to simulate complex quantum systems.
We can use these systems to study strongly correlated systems, transport out of equilibrium dynamics, and phase transitions, Zeiher elaborted. This capability is vital for exploring fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics and for developing new technological applications.
Zeiher also stressed the importance of long-range interactions in these systems.
Long-range interactions introduce competing length scales, which can lead to rich and complex physical phenomena, he noted. By manipulating these interactions, researchers can simulate various phases of matter, such as the superfluid and Mott insulator phases, and even more exotic states like the Haldane insulator and density wave phases.
In terms of practical applications, Zeiher discussed the potential of neutral-atom arrays in quantum computing.
Neutral atoms offer a promising platform for quantum computing due to their scalability and the high fidelity of quantum gates, he said. Recent advancements have pushed the fidelity of two-qubit gates to over 99.5%, putting them on par with other leading quantum computing platforms.
One of the groundbreaking techniques Zeiher discussed is the use of Rydberg dressing. By coupling atoms off-resonantly to Rydberg states, researchers can induce long-range interactions while maintaining a high level of stability. He explained that Rydberg dressing allows them to significantly enhance the lifetime of these states, enabling complex quantum simulations and computations over extended periods.
Zeiher concluded his talk by drawing attention to the broader implications of their research.
The ability to control and manipulate neutral atoms with such precision opens up new frontiers in both quantum simulation and quantum computing, he remarked.
The insights from these systems do not just allow one to push understanding in the realm of quantum mechanics further. Still, they will also serve as a frontier toward innovative technologies that have the potential to be revolutionary in most fields, from materials science to cryptography.
Zeiher uncovered the revolutionizing potential that neutral-atom arrays bear in quantum technology in his talk at the MCQST Colloquium. Given developments in controlling long-range interactions and fidelity of quantum gates, these systems will be of great importance for the future of quantum computing and simulation.
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The Future of Quantum Computing with Neutral-Atom Arrays - The Quantum Insider
Rare form of quantum matter created with molecules for the first time – Earth.com
Scientists have produced a rare form of quantum matter known as a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) using molecules instead of atoms.
Made from chilled sodium-cesium molecules, these BECs are as chilly as five nanoKelvin, or about -459.66 F, and stay stable for a remarkable two seconds.
These molecular BECs open up an new research arenas, from understanding truly fundamental physics to advancing powerful quantum simulations, noted Columbia University physicist Sebastian Will. Weve reached an exciting milestone, but its just the kick-off.
A Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) represents a state of matter that occurs when a collection of bosons, particles that follow Bose-Einstein statistics, are cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero.
Under such extreme conditions, a significant fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest quantum state, resulting in macroscopic quantum phenomena.
This means that they behave as a single quantum entity, effectively collapsing into a single wave function that can be easily described using the principles of quantum mechanics.
The fascinating aspect of BECs stems from their superfluid properties exhibiting zero viscosity as they flow, which allows them to move without dissipating energy.
This unique property enables BECs to simulate other quantum systems and explore new realms of physics.
For instance, studying BECs can provide insights into quantum coherence, phase transitions, and many-body interactions in quantum gases.
The creation of molecular BECs, like those involving sodium-cesium molecules, extends this exploration even further, potentially leading to breakthroughs in quantum computing and precision measurements.
The journey of BECs is a long and winding one, dating back a century to the works of physicists Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein.
They prophesied that a cluster of particle cooled to the brink of standstill would merge into a singular macro-entity, governed by the dictates of quantum mechanics. The first true atomic BECs emerged in 1995, 70 years after the original theoretical predictions.
Atomic BECs have always been relatively simple round objects with minimal polarity-based interactions. But the scientific community came to crave a more complex version of BECs compiled of molecules, albeit with no avail.
Finally, in 2008, the first breakthrough came when a duo of physicists chilled a gas of potassium-rubidium molecules to about 350 nanoKelvin. The quest for achieving an even lower temperature to cross the BEC threshold continued.
In 2023, the initial step towards this goal was achieved when the research group created their desired ultracold sodium-cesium molecule gas using a blend of laser cooling and magnetic manipulations. To further decrease the temperature, they decided to introduce microwaves.
Microwaves can construct small shields around each molecule, preventing them from colliding and leading to a drop in the overall temperature of the sample.
The groups achievement of creating a molecular BEC represents a spectacular accomplishment in quantum control technology.
This brilliant piece of scientific work is bound to impact a multitude of scientific fields, from the study of quantum chemistry to the exploration of complex quantum materials.
We really have a thorough understanding of the interactions in this system, which is vital for the subsequent steps, like exploring dipolar many-body physics, said co-author and Columbia postdoc Ian Stevenson.
The research team developed schemes to control interactions, tested these from a theoretical angle, and executed them in the actual experiment. Its truly wondrous to witness the realization of these microwave shielding concepts in the lab.
The creation of molecular BECs enables the fulfilment of numerous theoretical predictions. The stable nature of these molecular BECs allows extensive exploration of quantum physics.
A proposition to build artificial crystals with BECs held in a laser-made optical lattice might provide a comprehensive simulation of interactions in natural crystals.
On switching from a three-dimensional system to a two-dimensional one, new physics is expected to emerge. This area of research opens up a plethora of possibilities in the study of quantum phenomena, including superconductivity and superfluidity, amongst others.
This feels like a whole new universe of possibilities unveiling itself, Sebastian Will concluded, summing up the enthusiasm in the scientific community.
In summary, this research chronicles the successful creation of a Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) using ultracold sodium-cesium molecules, reaching a stable state at five nanoKelvin for two seconds.
Leveraging a combination of laser cooling, magnetic manipulations, and innovative microwave shielding, the research group and their theoretical collaborator achieved unprecedented control over molecular interactions at quantum levels.
This milestone enables comprehensive exploration of quantum phenomena such as coherence, phase transitions, and many-body interactions, potentially unlocking new avenues in quantum simulations, quantum computing, and precision measurements.
The full study was published in the journal Nature.
Special thanks to Ellen Neff from Columbia University.
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Yes, the Most Massive Particle Shows Some ‘Spooky Action At a Distance’ – Popular Mechanics
At its bare essentials, every atom is made of two fundamental particles: electrons and quarks. But not all quarks are the same. In fact,
Top quarks weigh in at an impressive 175.6 gigaelectron volts (GeV)about the same mass of the atomic nucleus of goldbut only exist for 15 to 24 seconds before decaying into free particles. Because of the top quarks (relatively) massive bulk, it took decades after the discovery of the bottom quark for the U.S.-based Fermilabs to create an accelerator capable of detecting the elusive particle.
In the 30 years since, investigating the top quark has opened up new worlds of particle physics, and the discovery of the Higgs boson in 2012 revealed the two particles close association. Now, scientists at CERN have been busy investigating the top quarks quantum properties, and discovered that top quarks experience quantum entanglement like other elementary particles even in spite of their mass.
In the fall of 2023, the Toroidal LHC Apparatus (ATLAS) Experiment discovered entanglement between two top quarks, and earlier this week, another CERN detectorthe Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS)also detected quantum entanglement between top quarks, according to CERN. Specifically, the team discovered entanglement between the unstable top quark and its antimatter partner across distances farther than what can be covered by information transferred at the speed of light, according to a press release. In the famous words of Albert Einstein, that is what's known as spooky action at distance.
To help illustrate this strange effect of quantum mechanics, Regina Demina from the University of Rochesterwho was part of the original team that discovered the top quark in 1995, co-lead a team that built the tracking device for finding the Higgs boson, and now led the CMS team at the Large Hadron Collider at CERNdescribes the idea in colorful terms via a Facebook video:
This kind of entanglement has been a hot topic when it comes to exploring quantum information and quantum computers, but top quarks can only be made in colliders. So, while they wont be used in these types of next-gen machines, the discovery of their entanglement could answer questions about this the nature of this spooky action from a distancequestions like whether that entanglement continues once a particle decays, and what eventually breaks that entanglement.
Its been a long journey of discovery when it comes to the top quark, and there are likely many more mysteries yet to uncover.
Darren lives in Portland, has a cat, and writes/edits about sci-fi and how our world works. You can find his previous stuff at Gizmodo and Paste if you look hard enough.
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Yes, the Most Massive Particle Shows Some 'Spooky Action At a Distance' - Popular Mechanics
What is a ‘kugelblitze’ and why should you care? – Earth.com
For nearly the last seventy years, the corridors of astrophysics have been echoing with the murmur of an exciting theory: the existence of kugelblitze.
These are not your average black holes. They are born not from the collapse of matter, but conceived through incredibly dense concentrations of light.
Kugelblitze have been speculated as the potential key to unlocking mysteries of the universe, like dark matter, and perhaps more enticingly, powering spaceships of the future.
However, this extraordinary theory has just hit a roadblock.
A formidable team of researchers from the University of Waterloo and Universidad Complutense de Madrid, led by the brilliant Eduardo Martn-Martnez, a professor of applied mathematics and mathematical physics, has established that kugelblitz might not be a reality in our universe.
Their compelling research, conveniently titled No black holes from light, is soon to be published in the Physical Review Letters after a preprint on arXiv.
The quantum realm and black holes share intriguing connections. Quantum mechanics governs the behavior of particles at the smallest scales. Black holes represent extreme gravity at cosmic scales.
Scientists believe quantum effects become important near a black holes center. Hawking radiation, a quantum phenomenon, causes black holes to slowly evaporate.
The black hole information paradox arises from conflicts between quantum theory and general relativity.
Researchers study black holes to better understand quantum gravity. Some theories propose black holes as gateways to other universes via quantum effects.
The relationship between these realms remains an active area of research in theoretical physics.
The most commonly known black holes are those caused by enormous concentrations of regular matter collapsing under its own gravity, said Prof. Martn-Martnez, who is also affiliated with the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. However, this prediction was made without considering quantum effects.
Trying to shed light on the matter, the team built a mathematical model, incorporating quantum effects.
They found that the concentration of light needed to spawn a kugelblitz outpaces the light intensity found in quasars, the brightest objects in our cosmos, by tens of orders of magnitude.
Long before you could reach that intensity of light, certain quantum effects would occur first, Jos Polo-Gmez, a Ph.D. candidate in applied mathematics and quantum information, remarked.
That strong of a concentration of light would lead to the spontaneous creation of particles like electron-positron pairs, which would move very quickly away from the area.
Though testing such effects on Earth isnt possible with current technologies, the teams confidence in their findings stems from the rock-solid principles of mathematics and science, that also power positron emission tomography (PET) scans.
Electrons, and their antiparticles (positrons) can annihilate each other and disintegrate into pairs of photons, or light particles, Martn-Martnez explained.
When there is a large concentration of photons they can disintegrate into electron-positron pairs, which are quickly scattered away taking the energy with them and preventing the gravitational collapse.
While the sprint towards kugelblitze mightve hit an unexpected speed breaker, the research is a massive victory for fundamental physics.
This collaborative effort between applied mathematics, the Perimeter Institute, and the Institute for Quantum Computing at Waterloo is laying the foundation for future significant scientific breakthroughs.
While these discoveries may not have known applications right now, we are laying the groundwork for our descendants technological innovations, Polo-Gmez ambitiously outlines.
The science behind PET scan machines was once just as theoretical, and now theres one in every hospital.
As we conclude this enlightening journey, lets remember science is not just about confirming theories but also about disproving them. Todays quantum quirks are the stepping stones for tomorrows path-breaking technologies.
While kugelblitze may not have panned out the way they were imagined, theyve undoubtedly illuminated a new direction for further exploration.
Whether its understanding the universe or developing technologies for future generations, every eureka moment counts, including those that remind us of what is not possible.
And in this vast expanse of what we know and what remains unknown, one fact remains resolute on the journey of scientific discovery, theres never a dull moment.
The full study was published in the journal arXiv.
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What is a 'kugelblitze' and why should you care? - Earth.com